Human Rights and China
What follows below is a reproduction of an essay I recently wrote for my PS3252: Human Rights and International Politics module in response to the question of: "The history of human rights in China illustrates the absurdity of conceptions of culture that present societies as static and sealed carriers of ancient and unchanging ideas. Even a culture as ancient and as conscious of its past as the Chinese has rather easily found a place for human rights in its aspirations. Discuss".
And just in case you all wonder about why I have so few references for this essay, it is because the lecturer stipulated that we (i.e. those taking the module) not do any more readings beyond those which he provided for the course.
One argument which has often been employed by detractors of human rights within China is that the concept of human rights is one which was formulated by Westerners and is thus a concept which is neither compatible with nor applicable for Chinese culture and society; insinuations about how human rights is a tool by Westerners to subvert China’s re-emergence as a great power are also rife. However, a close examination of the long history of human rights in China will perhaps reveal that the aforementioned argument is a fallacious one, when considering the numerous occasions in which members of the Chinese society have, on their own accord, recognised the full implementation of human rights as a goal which China should aspire for.
Yet, that said, it should be noted that even though China may have, for different reasons, adopted the implementation of human rights as one of its aspirations, several obstacles which may hinder the achievement of this aspiration nonetheless still exist. Also, it may be observed that China’s sincerity and commitment towards the goal of fully implementing human rights within its borders are perhaps not totally unequivocal.
However, before this essay moves on to look at the obstacles and constraints which may prevent China from achieving the full internal implementation of human rights, it would first examine the history of human rights in China to demonstrate the fallacies contained within the argument that the concept of human rights is Western-imposed and is neither compatible with nor applicable for Chinese culture and society.
As was rigorously documented by Svensson, the concept of human rights perhaps first emerged in the political discourse within China during the late Qing period[1]. This emergence, as can be observed, was due to the efforts by the Chinese people, specifically government officials and intellectuals, to import and learn foreign ideas and technologies as a means of strengthening China against further foreign exploitation.
And although ideas about human rights did initially originated from Western sources and entered China through translated works[2], it can be noted that these ideas were not, as some modern day critics of human rights within China may claim, forcibly imposed upon China by foreign powers. Instead, such ideas were eagerly adopted by Chinese intellectuals who, despite their different views about them, recognised human rights as being a concept which is, though perhaps not totally compatible with traditional Confucian/Chinese culture, applicable to China[3]. It should also be noted that even though the concept of human rights did initially enter the Chinese political discourse through works translated by foreigners, Chinese intellectuals later also translated foreign works on human rights and invented a new “vocabulary” to discuss and debate the concept[4].
In addition to adopting the concept of human rights as a topic to discuss and debate upon, the Chinese people, specifically intellectuals and other educated Chinese who were already involved in the debate over the concept of human rights, also established groups and movements in different time periods to promote and protect human rights in China. Examples of this would include the Xinyue group and the China League for the Protection of Civil Rights of the 1930s[5] and the Democracy Wall Movement of the late 1970s[6]. And it may be observed that even throughout the 1980s and 1990s (and perhaps even until today and beyond), there are continued appeals by Chinese activists and dissidents, both within and outside of mainland China, who seek to promote and protect the human rights of Chinese citizens from a seemingly illiberal and authoritarian Chinese government.
Hence, bearing the above discussion of the history of human rights in China in mind, it is perhaps evident that despite arguments claiming otherwise, the concept of human rights is not a concept which is neither compatible with nor applicable for Chinese culture and society that was forcibly imposed upon China by foreign powers. This is considering that although the concept of human rights in China perhaps did initially originated from foreign sources, the Chinese have, similar to what they have done to the imported concept of Marxism-Leninism, adopted and adapted it to coincide with their purposes and culture.
Indeed, if the concept of human rights was, as some may claim, a concept entirely alien and incompatible with Chinese society and culture, one would find it most difficult to explain the fact that China is a signatory to various human rights covenants, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Covenant on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women[7]. It is hardly plausible that China would be a willing signatory to the aforementioned and other international human rights covenants if it indeed perceived human rights as being incompatible with its culture.
Yet, lest one be mistaken due to the discussion above, it should be noted that even though China may perhaps have nominally claimed that it aspires towards the full implementation of human rights within its borders, there perhaps remain signs that suggest its sincerity and commitment, or at least that of the Chinese government, towards achieving this goal are not entirely unequivocal in nature.
Firstly, it may be noted that despite its long history in China, the appeal of human rights is perhaps still limited to the intellectual and educated communities within China. This is considering that awareness of human rights as a concept perhaps still remains relatively limited for the general populace, especially for those living in the poorer and/or rural regions of China. It would thus be reasonable to postulate that for many living within China, the idea of human rights being an aspiration which China should strive to achieve remains as an airy-fairy, if not non-existent, idea.
Also, as was mentioned earlier on in this essay, the concept of human rights first emerged in China in a time period in which Chinese intellectuals and government officials were engaged in importing and learning foreign ideas and technologies in order to strengthen China against further foreign exploitation. This would suggest that instead of seeing the implementation of human rights as a worthy end in itself, the Chinese perhaps view it as merely being a means to achieve the end of national strength.
Indeed, it can be observed that this utilitarian view of human rights still persist in modern day China. This is considering that China has moved to espouse human rights as one of its aspirations partly due to its desire to construct for itself a reputation of being a recognised and responsible great power in the international community[8].
Hence, considering the above, it may be observed that while the full implementation of human rights may have found a place in the aspirations of China, it is perhaps an aspiration which is subordinate to China’s paramount aspiration of national strength and power. This would mean that should the full implementation of human rights be perceived as not coinciding with the achieving of national strength and power, it is highly likely that China would not hesitate to suspend, if not sacrifice, human rights in order to achieve or preserve its national strength and power[9].
Thus, it should be noted that despite China claiming the full implementation of human rights as one of the goals it desires to achieve, it is only one goal amongst many competing goals that China may have. Indeed, it can be observed that on various occasions, China has perhaps moved against human rights in order to achieve goals such as domestic political control, territorial sovereignty and integrity and social order. Examples of this would include China’s past actions in Tibet and during the Tiananmen Incident of 1989.
Furthermore, it may be observed that there perhaps remain lingering suspicions by China that certain foreign powers are using human rights as tool to undermine China’s re-emergence as a great power[10]. Also, it has been suggested that China’s claim of adopting the full implementation of human rights as a goal is nothing but a tactical concession by the Chinese government to ward off and placate criticism, especially that coming from foreign sources, of its authoritarian behaviour[11].
In addition, it should not escape one’s notice that even as China claims to be working towards the full implementation of human rights within its own borders, its desire to be seen as a champion of the developing world, entwined together with the desires to compete with the United States for strategic influence around the world and not invite criticism of its own human rights record, has led it to not place emphasis on the role of human rights in its dealings with countries such as Sudan and Myanmar. Instead, it has been more inclined to overlook the alleged human right abuses in these countries while repeatedly emphasising that a country’s domestic sovereignty should take priority over external interference[12].
Hence, in conclusion, it may be observed that although the argument that the concept of human rights is a Western-imposed concept which is incompatible with Chinese culture and society may be shown to be a fallacious argument, this does not necessarily imply that China would be totally sincere and committed to achieving the goal of fully implementing human rights. Indeed, as was evidently shown in this essay, there are various factors which would lead one to be rather suspicious of China’s sincerity and commitment towards human rights.
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Notes
[1] Svensson 2002, pages 71-75
[2] Ibid
[3] Ibid, pages 119 and 140-142
[4] Ibid, pages 84-91
[5] Ibid, pages 160-166 and 170-176
[6] Ibid, pages 236-247
[7] Foot 2000, page 3
[8] Foot 2000, pages 18-19 and 24
[9] Ibid, page 26
[10] Ibid, pages 185 and 247-248
[11] Foot 2000, pages 257-258
[12] Ibid, page 19
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References
Foot, Rosemary. 2000. Rights Beyond Borders: The Global Community and the Struggle Over Human Rights in China. Oxford University Press. Chapters 1, 4-9
Svensson, Marina. 2002. Debating Human Rights in China: A Conceptual and Political History. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Chapters 4-7, 9-12
And just in case you all wonder about why I have so few references for this essay, it is because the lecturer stipulated that we (i.e. those taking the module) not do any more readings beyond those which he provided for the course.
One argument which has often been employed by detractors of human rights within China is that the concept of human rights is one which was formulated by Westerners and is thus a concept which is neither compatible with nor applicable for Chinese culture and society; insinuations about how human rights is a tool by Westerners to subvert China’s re-emergence as a great power are also rife. However, a close examination of the long history of human rights in China will perhaps reveal that the aforementioned argument is a fallacious one, when considering the numerous occasions in which members of the Chinese society have, on their own accord, recognised the full implementation of human rights as a goal which China should aspire for.
Yet, that said, it should be noted that even though China may have, for different reasons, adopted the implementation of human rights as one of its aspirations, several obstacles which may hinder the achievement of this aspiration nonetheless still exist. Also, it may be observed that China’s sincerity and commitment towards the goal of fully implementing human rights within its borders are perhaps not totally unequivocal.
However, before this essay moves on to look at the obstacles and constraints which may prevent China from achieving the full internal implementation of human rights, it would first examine the history of human rights in China to demonstrate the fallacies contained within the argument that the concept of human rights is Western-imposed and is neither compatible with nor applicable for Chinese culture and society.
As was rigorously documented by Svensson, the concept of human rights perhaps first emerged in the political discourse within China during the late Qing period[1]. This emergence, as can be observed, was due to the efforts by the Chinese people, specifically government officials and intellectuals, to import and learn foreign ideas and technologies as a means of strengthening China against further foreign exploitation.
And although ideas about human rights did initially originated from Western sources and entered China through translated works[2], it can be noted that these ideas were not, as some modern day critics of human rights within China may claim, forcibly imposed upon China by foreign powers. Instead, such ideas were eagerly adopted by Chinese intellectuals who, despite their different views about them, recognised human rights as being a concept which is, though perhaps not totally compatible with traditional Confucian/Chinese culture, applicable to China[3]. It should also be noted that even though the concept of human rights did initially enter the Chinese political discourse through works translated by foreigners, Chinese intellectuals later also translated foreign works on human rights and invented a new “vocabulary” to discuss and debate the concept[4].
In addition to adopting the concept of human rights as a topic to discuss and debate upon, the Chinese people, specifically intellectuals and other educated Chinese who were already involved in the debate over the concept of human rights, also established groups and movements in different time periods to promote and protect human rights in China. Examples of this would include the Xinyue group and the China League for the Protection of Civil Rights of the 1930s[5] and the Democracy Wall Movement of the late 1970s[6]. And it may be observed that even throughout the 1980s and 1990s (and perhaps even until today and beyond), there are continued appeals by Chinese activists and dissidents, both within and outside of mainland China, who seek to promote and protect the human rights of Chinese citizens from a seemingly illiberal and authoritarian Chinese government.
Hence, bearing the above discussion of the history of human rights in China in mind, it is perhaps evident that despite arguments claiming otherwise, the concept of human rights is not a concept which is neither compatible with nor applicable for Chinese culture and society that was forcibly imposed upon China by foreign powers. This is considering that although the concept of human rights in China perhaps did initially originated from foreign sources, the Chinese have, similar to what they have done to the imported concept of Marxism-Leninism, adopted and adapted it to coincide with their purposes and culture.
Indeed, if the concept of human rights was, as some may claim, a concept entirely alien and incompatible with Chinese society and culture, one would find it most difficult to explain the fact that China is a signatory to various human rights covenants, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Covenant on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women[7]. It is hardly plausible that China would be a willing signatory to the aforementioned and other international human rights covenants if it indeed perceived human rights as being incompatible with its culture.
Yet, lest one be mistaken due to the discussion above, it should be noted that even though China may perhaps have nominally claimed that it aspires towards the full implementation of human rights within its borders, there perhaps remain signs that suggest its sincerity and commitment, or at least that of the Chinese government, towards achieving this goal are not entirely unequivocal in nature.
Firstly, it may be noted that despite its long history in China, the appeal of human rights is perhaps still limited to the intellectual and educated communities within China. This is considering that awareness of human rights as a concept perhaps still remains relatively limited for the general populace, especially for those living in the poorer and/or rural regions of China. It would thus be reasonable to postulate that for many living within China, the idea of human rights being an aspiration which China should strive to achieve remains as an airy-fairy, if not non-existent, idea.
Also, as was mentioned earlier on in this essay, the concept of human rights first emerged in China in a time period in which Chinese intellectuals and government officials were engaged in importing and learning foreign ideas and technologies in order to strengthen China against further foreign exploitation. This would suggest that instead of seeing the implementation of human rights as a worthy end in itself, the Chinese perhaps view it as merely being a means to achieve the end of national strength.
Indeed, it can be observed that this utilitarian view of human rights still persist in modern day China. This is considering that China has moved to espouse human rights as one of its aspirations partly due to its desire to construct for itself a reputation of being a recognised and responsible great power in the international community[8].
Hence, considering the above, it may be observed that while the full implementation of human rights may have found a place in the aspirations of China, it is perhaps an aspiration which is subordinate to China’s paramount aspiration of national strength and power. This would mean that should the full implementation of human rights be perceived as not coinciding with the achieving of national strength and power, it is highly likely that China would not hesitate to suspend, if not sacrifice, human rights in order to achieve or preserve its national strength and power[9].
Thus, it should be noted that despite China claiming the full implementation of human rights as one of the goals it desires to achieve, it is only one goal amongst many competing goals that China may have. Indeed, it can be observed that on various occasions, China has perhaps moved against human rights in order to achieve goals such as domestic political control, territorial sovereignty and integrity and social order. Examples of this would include China’s past actions in Tibet and during the Tiananmen Incident of 1989.
Furthermore, it may be observed that there perhaps remain lingering suspicions by China that certain foreign powers are using human rights as tool to undermine China’s re-emergence as a great power[10]. Also, it has been suggested that China’s claim of adopting the full implementation of human rights as a goal is nothing but a tactical concession by the Chinese government to ward off and placate criticism, especially that coming from foreign sources, of its authoritarian behaviour[11].
In addition, it should not escape one’s notice that even as China claims to be working towards the full implementation of human rights within its own borders, its desire to be seen as a champion of the developing world, entwined together with the desires to compete with the United States for strategic influence around the world and not invite criticism of its own human rights record, has led it to not place emphasis on the role of human rights in its dealings with countries such as Sudan and Myanmar. Instead, it has been more inclined to overlook the alleged human right abuses in these countries while repeatedly emphasising that a country’s domestic sovereignty should take priority over external interference[12].
Hence, in conclusion, it may be observed that although the argument that the concept of human rights is a Western-imposed concept which is incompatible with Chinese culture and society may be shown to be a fallacious argument, this does not necessarily imply that China would be totally sincere and committed to achieving the goal of fully implementing human rights. Indeed, as was evidently shown in this essay, there are various factors which would lead one to be rather suspicious of China’s sincerity and commitment towards human rights.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Notes
[1] Svensson 2002, pages 71-75
[2] Ibid
[3] Ibid, pages 119 and 140-142
[4] Ibid, pages 84-91
[5] Ibid, pages 160-166 and 170-176
[6] Ibid, pages 236-247
[7] Foot 2000, page 3
[8] Foot 2000, pages 18-19 and 24
[9] Ibid, page 26
[10] Ibid, pages 185 and 247-248
[11] Foot 2000, pages 257-258
[12] Ibid, page 19
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References
Foot, Rosemary. 2000. Rights Beyond Borders: The Global Community and the Struggle Over Human Rights in China. Oxford University Press. Chapters 1, 4-9
Svensson, Marina. 2002. Debating Human Rights in China: A Conceptual and Political History. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Chapters 4-7, 9-12
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